Military and state leaders have tried to understand and predict nations’ will to preserve and fight through adversity. Mr. McNerney argued that it is possible to predict a nation’s will to fight an invading force; however, conflicts throughout history—such as Vietnam and Afghanistan—demonstrate that the understanding of individual nation’s will at a national level is poor. The question of will itself is large and difficult to scope, commented Maj Gen (Rtd) Sharpe. The speakers all mentioned areas of focus, factors, mechanisms, and contextual information that they believed influence a nation’s will to fight. Several factors include, but are not limited to, civilian-military relations, popular support, governmental cohesion, and economic leverage. Technology is a tool that can help explain a country’s will to fight.

The world is undergoing an era of nuclear transition while the mechanisms normally used to control these transitions are being placed under stress. Moreover, technological, geopolitical, and normative changes can influence the nuclear ecosystem and how actors handle nuclear threats and understand nuclear technology. Mr. Futter argued that this nuclear transition is a global and multifaceted phenomenon. He separated nuclear transitions into three-time frames: a) the first nuclear age (1945-1990), b) the second nuclear age (1990s-2014), and c) the third nuclear age (2018-present). These ages are defined by actors’ policy choices and the number of actors acquiring nuclear power.

China’s ruling government, led by President Xi Jinping, is becoming increasingly authoritarian and controlling over China’s media environment; however, China’s media and society was not always this restrictive. Mr. Tye’s presentation focused on China’s transition towards authoritarianism, which he witnessed first-hand while living there for nearly a decade. From 2008 to 2012, encountered a sense of optimism overall in China. Foreigners were treated with respect and friendliness, and China’s government relaxed its authoritarian policies in favor of economic growth. Mr. Tye stated that China even began borrowing US brands—like the NBA—for marketing campaigns in major city squares. He also described a strong developmental divide between rural and urban communities throughout China.

Africa is a frequent target for Russian information operations (IO), keeping Russia from being politically isolated, weakening democratic ideals, and strengthening the Kremlin’s regime security. Russia is deploying IO in Africa to pursue a variety of strategic objectives, including a) unobstructed access to natural resources, b) lucrative mineral and economic contracts, and c) preventing African countries from levying sanctions. Africa’s information space is already susceptible to malign operations; however, Russia’s IO is further degrading African countries’ information space. Dr. Duerksen stated that truthful information is becoming increasingly sparse in African media. Russian Television (RT) exacerbates this issue by allowing other media organizations on the continent to republish fake or misleading stories without restrictions.

The increasing proliferation of smart phones and internet availability is changing the way that digital investigations are occurring, especially in remote areas. While the digital realm has existed since the invention of radio, video and satellite imagery have given digital investigators new tools within the past few decades. New tools and the creation of social media have also resulted in the need for new global standards regarding the collection and handling of digital information for legal purposes. These new standards are encapsulated in the Berkley Protocol. Dr. Koenig explained that the Berkley Protocol—the first international standard used in digital investigation and prosecution—is used to give investigators a starting point regarding the quality standards of information being collected and how to legally go undercover on social media.

Decision makers and military strategists expect artificial intelligence (AI) to change how war is fought. AI is a blanket term for several technologies and their capabilities. Many people believe AI’s defining feature is its level of autonomy; however, AI’s main function is actually as a decision-making tool.

The advancement of technology—including artificial intelligence (AI)—is unavoidable. New technology will inevitably change how military campaigns are conducted and how individual military units engage in combat.

Mr. Abeyagoonasekera began the presentation by stating that China’s loans and investments in Sri Lanka are ultimately creating a debt trap.

The COVID-19 pandemic and the political fallout from Russia’s invasion of Ukraine is exposing the weaknesses of value chains and causing academics and economists to question what influences the resiliency of global supply and value chains. Mr. Steen started by making an important distinction between value chains and supply chains.

Dr. Pettyjohn explained that nuclear deterrence is frequently examined in the context of a bilateral competition rather than a multipolar competition between three or more nuclear capable states.